Climate: Weather is cool, damp and temperate. Average yearly rainfall is 30-50" (90-100" in western mountains). Temperatures range from 57 deg. F in July to 42 deg. F in January. Frost and snow are rare, but rain is common.
Flora and Fauna: Due to its isolation from Europe, the range of plants and animals is not great. 97% of all trees are confiers. Along the coast, mackrel are fished in the south and west while cod are to the north and east.
Geography: There are mountains to the north, west and south. Most mountains range 1500 to 2500 feet. A broad plain, uneven in most areas with low rolling hills, covers most of the middle of the islands. Numerous small lakes dot Ireland. 14% of the island are covered by peat bogs (mainly in west/central areas).
Gaels: The first wave of Celts into Britian by several centuries. With the arrival of the second wave, they allied with the remnants of the Iberians (whom they had pushed into poorer areas) against the newer invaders. They were unified in religion, law, customs, literature and the arts, but not politics; 4 (later 5) major and up to 200 petty kingdoms existed. A tall, fair, light-haired and blue or grey-eyed people of Indo-European origin. They knew how to work bronze and silver and introduced several domesticated animals into Britain. Also known as the Milesians (in myth and legend), who defeated the Tuatha De Danann and forced them into sidhes.
Iberians: A short, swarthy, dark haired/eyed race from north/central Africa which first inhabited the British Isles. Iberians are possibly related to Estrucans (Italy) and Hittites (Palestine). They were a Stone Age people who practiced agriculture and lived in totemistic tribes centered on hills. It is likely that they were the creators of most of the stone monuments (aside from dolmens).
Picts: Most likely resulted from the crossbreeding of the Gaels and Iberians. Primarily lived in northern Scotland. Very little is known about them. They may have survived (more or less) until the end of the Dark Ages.
Fir Bolg, etc: Historically, these were possibly Iberians overcome by the Gaels, or even a medieval invention to explain the remains of an ancient battle on the plain of Moytura. In myths, they were a race of giants defeated by the Tuatha De Danann upon their arrival in Ireland. Only three hundred (warriors) survived, and were given Connaught.
Fomorians: Historically, sea-raiders of Scandinavian (possibly Finnish) origin. In legend, they were a supernatural race (perhaps the abroiginal gods) dwelling off the coast of Ireland. Most possessed some horrible physical deformity, though many were normal in appearance. They were driven off by the Tuatha De Dannan after political marriages failed to reconcile the two races.
The Gaels were divided into three main social classes: kings, warrior aristocracy and freemen farmers. The druids, bards and seers were outside of this structure, ranking between kings and warriors. Land ownership was vested in the family. Most farmholds were held by a single extended family. Social power usually depended on wealth in cattle (one cow was the basic unit of 'currency').
Ireland was divided into four provinces (a fitfh, Meath, with the capital at Tara, was added after 200 AD), Connaught, Ulster, Munster and Leinster, each ruled by a separate king. Each province was further divided into smaller holdings by petty kings (as many as 200 petty kingdoms).
Gaels were fond of feasting, drinking (beer) and quarreling. They greatly prized music and most forms of oral composition (poerty, songs, etc).
One unusual custom was of having children brought up by foster parents, thus strengthening links between families. While Brehon law covered most situations, disputes were settled within the family in which they occured. A blood fine could be exacted for serious crimes.
The status of women varied by kingdom, but in general they had more rights than Roman or Greek women (especially true for Gaelic noblewomen), and could become warriors or druids in most areas, though this was uncommon.
Clothing: While many gaelic men wore trousers, most wore belted tunics and a cloak. Women wore a long garment and a cloak. Gaelic clothing was very brightly colored, though only druids were allowed all seven colors. Ornamantation consisted of gold torcs, bracelets and rings, as well as glass and amber beads.
The main weapons were daggers, spears, swords and axes made of iron or bronze. Their shields were round. They also used a form of bolas. The common infantryman carried a mix of light spear, shortsword and war-darts. He wore no armor and carried a small wooden shield. A few carried short (self) bows. Chieftains carried the same weapons (though of better quality and/or decoration) and added padded leather armor and a leather cap. Kings added a (bronze) breastplate.
The celts used war chariots, made of wicker and drawn by two or four horses. There was room for several warriors in a chariot, plus bronze blades on the wheels to cut down infantry that got too close. Bows, spears and war-darts were used from chariot-borne warriors. The Romans spoke highly of Celtic skill with their war chariots. (Some historians claim that the Gaels never fought from chariots, which contradicts first-hand Roman accounts).
Most Gaelic warriors were light infantry, with some light cavalry for scouting and raiding. In battle, each army would face each other in a line and shout insults at their enemies. After several minutes of this, each army would madly charge at each other, with little regard for strategy (so any tactical surprises had to be pullled by troops not yet engaged in battle).
One custom of Gaelic raiders was for each man to collect a stone and all to pile them into a cairn near the site of the raid; after the raid, each man would return and collect a stone. Therefore, by counting the number of uncollected stones, the raiders would know their losses.
Like most celts, the Gaels had a code of honor that would later be incorporated into the code of chivalry (indeed, it may have been the basis for chivalry). Honorable foe were to be fought honorably (ie, no unfair advantages).
fian: A group of mercenary warriors who worked for Irish nobles and kings. They had little or no time for non-military careers and lived by scavaging (hunting and fishing) and pillaging when not employed. The wintered with their countrymen, but during summer lived in the woods and open moors. The best-known fian was lead by the hero Fionn Mac Cumhail.
taking of heads: The Celts routinely took the heads of foes defeated in single combat (and sometimes war). Such heads were preserved and kept, in some cases even taken to feasts. Gaellic lore has several instances of severed heads speaking.
To Celts (as well as many other cultures, such as the Greeks), night came before day and winter before summer. The festival of Samhain marked the beginning of the year. Months were based on the lunar cycle, alternating between 29 and 30 days each. Once every 30 years, an adjustment was made to keep the calender right. Each phase was broken down into a week (7 or 8 days).
Religious Holidays
Four main festivals were recognized by the ancient Gaels: Samhain (November
1), Imbolg (February 1), Beltaine (May 1) and Lughnasdth (August 1). It
was considered a grave offense to commit any crime during a festival (during
Belatine, no weapons could be raised). It was believed that the Tuatha
De Danann opened the doors to their sidhe on Samhain and Beltaine.
Samhain: November 1. Beginning of the Gaelic year. Marked the end of summer and the start of winter. The dead and supernatural being of evil prowled during the day. Any cattle that could not be sheltered for the winter were slaughtered (thus providing a reason for the feast). Celebrated for several days before and after November 1.
Imbolg: February 1. Associated with Brigit, this marked preparations for the start of spring. There was little tribal celebration, though the festival was important to women.
Beltaine: May 1st. Celebrates the waking of the earth from her winter sleep and the renewal of spring. Most of the important events in Gaelic mythology occured on Beltaine.
Lughnasadh: August 1-16; festival of love; games were held on honor of the sun and moon. This also marked the beginning of the harvest. It was also a time of arranging marriages and starting/renewing friendships.
Angus (love/beauty): Also called Mac Oc (Son of the Young). Carried a harp of gold. Had a fairy palace along the banks of the Boyne, which he tricked his father (the Dagda) out of.
Anu (prosperity/abundance): Aside from being the mother of the 'first generation' of gods, she played little part in the mythology. Also known as Danu. Also connceted with the fairy queen Aine.
Bile (death): The father (creator) of the 'first generation' of gods and the Mileseans (the first Celts).
Brigit (fire/poetry/hearth): One of the most important and most revered of the Gaelic goddessess. The festival Imbolg was (partly) in her honor. Was later made into a Catholic saint.
Cromm Cruaich: This mysterious and dark god is the only gaelic god strongly associated with human sacrifice (children at that). Outside an ancient poem detailing the gristly ceremony and the account of St. Patrick destroying the god's greatest monument, few other references are made to him (he is not mentioned at all in the old Gaelic legends).
Dagda (earth): His name means "Good God" (more for his skill than disposition). He played a living harp of oak and was very fond of porridge. Was a formidable fighter despite being portrayed as oafish and incompetent. His wife was Boann. The last reference to him in legend was as chief cook to an Irish king.
Dianecht (medicine): Had two children (Miach and Airmid) who followed in his profession. Another daughter (Etan) who married Ogma. Other sons included Cian, Cethe and Cu. When Miach reattached Nuada's severed hand, where he had failed, Diancecht struck his son dead.
Goibniu (iron working), Crede (bronze worker), Luchtaine (carptentry): These were the craftsmen of the gods. Goidniu also brewed a drink that made the Tuatha De Danann invulvnerable, and is lesser-known as a sorcerer and (bridge-)builder.
Lugh Lamhfada: Known as the "Long Handed" due to his skill with the rod-sling. He also had a fearsome spear which wielded itself in battle. He had a marvelous hound. Unlike the other gods, he is well skilled in all areas (hence his other name, Ioldanach, "Master of All Arts").
Macha (battle): May have been a goddess or merely an aspect of the Morrigan. Also, a woman named Macha (perhaps an earthly manisfestation) was, while pregnant, forced to race the king of Ulster's best horses when here husband offhandedly mentioned her great running ability. After winning the race, she gave birth to twins (thus the name of the place, Emain Macha), and laid a curse on all men born in Ulster that for nine generations they would suffer the pains of childberth for five days a year (this set up Cuchulainn being forced to defend Ulster against an invading army without aid).
Manannan mac Lir (sailors/sea): Son of Lir (ocean god). Favorite areas were Isle of Man (named after him) and Isle of Arran. He had many enchanted items, both for combat and transportation.
Mider (underworld): Son of Dagda. Connected with the Isle of Falga (Isle of Man), where he had a stronghold. He is not well thought of, being plundered by others freely. During the time of Fionn mac Coul, he often asked for the help of the Fenians, as the other gods were constantly fighting him.
the Morrigan (war): Also known as the Morrigu, the principal war goddess (especially after the death of Nuada), she represented all aspects of battle, and was perhaps the most active of the Tuatha De Danann with respects to interfering with the lives of the heros. Badb may have been a separate goddess or simply an aspect of the Morrigan.
Nuada the Silver Armed (war): The original leader of the Gaelic gods, deposed because of injuries suffered against the Fir Bolg. Restored to kingship in time to face the Formors; he and his wife (among others) were killed.
Ogma (literature/eloquence): Married Etan (daughter of Diancecht). Credited with inventing the ogam alphabet, he was also champion of the Tuatha De Danann. Also known as Cermait (Honey-Mouthed). Many of his children played major roles in gaelic mythology.
Tuatha De Danann: Collectively, the gods of the Gaels. This name gomes from the goddess Danu, mother of the Gaelic gods. Over time, the roster of gaelic gods changed drastically. By the time of the arrival of St. Patrick, most of the original gaelic gods were gone (dead or vanished). According to Gaelic lore, the Tuatha De Danann were defeated and forced into sidhes by their ancestors (although many gods chose to leave Ireland completely)..
Local Dieties: Aside from the Tuatha De Danann, other spirits were respected, and perhaps worshipped. First were ancestors and secondly were nature spirits (such as of rivers, forests, etc.). These lesser spirits were almost never heard of outside their region, but were held in great esteem by locals. Non-ancestor spirits were likely fallen gods of the aboriginals.
Heros, Heroines and Assorted Personages
Balor: King of the Fomorians. His eye could slay with a glance. Killed by Lugh, his grandson.
Bricriu: chief trouble-maker of the Ulster cycle
Caer Ibormeith: lover of Angus mac Oc, capable of taking different forms. She spends alternate years as a human and swan.
Cathbad: druid of Conchobar who fortold the rise of Cu Chulainn and the Tragedy of Deirdriu. The 'Merlin-figure' of the Ulster Cycle.
Conchobar mac Nessa: King of Ulster, son of Nessa and Cathbad. Due to his treachery involving Dierdriu, he was the last of his line.
Cuchulainn: Perhaps the greatest of the heroes, killed his first man at age 7, killed in battle at age 27 after being forced to break both his geasa (Never refuse a meal, Never eat a dog). Two of his most important possessions were the Gae Bulga, a spear which killed whatever it struck, and the Gray of Macha, a magnificent warhorse. His wife was Emer, but his only child was with Aoife (or Aithe). Dechtire was his mother.
Connla: The son of Cuchulainn by Aithe. Because of heavily restrictive geasa laid on him by his father, Connla was killed by Cuchulainn, who was unaware it was his son.
Fionn mac Cumhail: supposedly active around 300 AD, he lead a powerful fiann. After Cuchulainn, he was the greatest Irish hero. By sucking on his thumb, he could divine answers.
Ossian: The son of Fionn, he was the last of the Fionn's soldiers to die, emerging from a sidhe in the time of St. Patrick.
Scathach: The female warrior (and perhaps minor goddess) who instructed Cuchulainn in the use of arms. She lived in Scotland, or possibly continental Europe.
The exact source and methods of worship by the Gaels is largely a matter of conjecture. It appears that they appeased rather than actually worshipped their gods. Also, dead ancestors and spirits of nearby geographical features (especially rivers, wells, forests and hills) likely recieved more attention than the Tuatha De Danann. While druids served as priests, their 'powers' came from knowledge and nature, not the Gaelic gods.
There were no known churches; religious cerimonies took place in the open, weather permitting. Sacrifice was common, but usually was restricted to small animals, prepared food and items of personal value (jewelry, weapons, etc). Almost all references to human sacrifice are connected with Cromm Cruiach (and the majority of those references are by Christian missionaries; it is also likely that Cromm was only a local diety, at best). Other human sacrifices were probably limited to condemned criminals and war prisoners. Certain animals were reserved for special occassions (bulls and horses, for determining the next king, for example).
As the celts believed in the transmigration of souls (which included passage into non-human forms, for the gaels), several unusual customs arose. First, debts were considered to transfer to the next life. Also, friends and relatives sometimes jumped onto the dead's funeral pyre so that they could be reborn with the deceased.
Stone Worship: Many stone structures can be found that are probably of religious significance. These include single stones (often with carvings), stone circles (up to three circles, with a diameter from a few dozen to a few thousand feet), logan stones (used more for divinations) and dolmens (or cromlechs; the burial sites of heros and giants). All but the first and last were likely the work of a Stone Age people, who gave way to the Gaels (similar structures are spread all over Asia and the Middle East). They were possibly used as religious (and perhaps astrology sites) by the druids. The dolmens were definately built by the Gaels, and some were quite large (covering two acres). Since the gods of the Gaels were masters of shapeshifting, the Gaels did not make or use anthropomorphic statues (like the Romans). Instead, their stones of worship merely symbolized the gods. The mysterious round towers (as many as 200, sloping inwards 10 degrees and from 20-140 feet in diameter, and roofed with a spiral staircase) were probably pre-Christian, but likely served as forts and grain-stores rather than temples.
Bards, Druids and Vates (Fili)
The druids, bards and vates were the learned people of the celts and were of high status. Most came from the warrior families and were exempt from military service and taxes.
Druids: Priests, judges, scholars and healers of the Celts. Their powers were independant of the gods. Later (Christian) sources reduce them to mere magicians. They believed in the transmigration of souls. It could take up to 20 years training to become a druid. It is likely that most druids specialized in only one or two areas (law, history, religion, etc).
Bards: Repositories of tribal and racial history. They also served as genealogists. They were treated with great respect, as an angered bard was likely to satirize those who showed disrespect. It took 12 years to become a bard.
Vates (or Ovates): The Celtic seers, they served as prophets, study nature and oversaw sacrifices (this odd combination was due to the use of death throes in some forms of divination).
Many types of sacrifice were practiced by the Gaels. Animals were most common, with bulls and horses reserved for special occasions. Human sacrifices were rarer, and usually limited to criminals and war prisoners (though, as with Cromm Cruiach, some communities may have been less particular, and Julius Caesar claimed differently). Human sacrifice may have been associated with one of the four elements (drowining for water, cremation for fire, live burial for earth and hanging for air).
A barrow being a door to an underground realm of inexhaustible splendour
and delight. All of the Gaelic gods selected one (except for Angus, who
ticked his father the Dagda out his best one) had one after the conquest
of Ireland by the Mileseans. Gods were referred to as Fer-Sidhe and goddessess
as Bean-Sidhe (later, banshee). Time passed in odd ways in a sidhe; mortals
entering one may come out minutes or decades later.
| God/Goddess | Sidhe Location (approximate) |
| Lir | Newton Hamilton |
| Bodb | Portumna |
| Mider | Ardagh |
| Ilbhreach | Ballyshannon |
| Fionbharr | Tuam |
| Dagda | Meath/River Boyne |
The use and effects of magic were varied and strange in Gaelic mythology. In general, whatever the plot required was possible. However, some forms of magic were much more common than others. In particular, shapeshifting, illusion and divination were fairly common. While druids were the most significant spell-casters, any of the Tuatha De Danann could cast spells, as could some bards (through song and/or verse).
The Tuatha De Danann possessed many magical items, most for war, but there were many used for feasting and transportation.
The Undry: calderon of the Dagda which fed everyone according to their merits
The Retaliator: sword of Manannan which never failed to slay
Wave Sweeper: boat which propelled and guided itself wherever its owner wished
Splendid Mare: faster than the spring wind, could travel on water and land
Stone of Fal: uttered a human cry when touched by the rightful king of Ireland
------, Encyclopedia Britannica
Bonwick, James, Irish Druids and Old Irish Religions (very New
Age-ish, but some good material)
Cross, Tom and Slover, Clark, Ancient Irish Tales (Book of Invasions,
Ulster Cycle, Ossian Tales)
Davidson, H. R. Ellis, Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe (also
covers Vikings and Germans)
Fraprie, Frank Roy, Castles and Keeps of Scotland
Galloway, Bruce, Fantasy Wargaming (I knew it had to be good
for something ...)
Macbain, Alexander, Celtic Mythology and Religion (good for
burial customs)
Mackenzie, Donald, Crete and Pre Hellenic Europe
Matthews, Caitlin, The Celtic Tradition (a bit too New Age)
Matthews, John and Caitlin, British and Irish Mythology (encyclopedia
format)
Ross, Anne, The Folklore of the Scottish Highlands
Squire, Charles, Celtic Myths and Legends (best of the lot)